Operating Definitions and Guidelines for Writing

The Full Framework of Rhetoric

When persuasion works in light of the audience, subject, and purpose, it proceeds honestly and ethically from the parts below and brings about the greatest good for the greatest number of people. A framework of the full context includes

Aristotle's scheme of rhetoric as outlined by Toulmin below to illustrate how the parts interrelate in the framework of systematic, informal logic.
a section which explains how logical fallacies develop.
a set of training wheels that can help detect logical fallacies when they are not obvious.
study questions

A Framework of Persuasion

Whenever anyone tries to convince anyone to do or believe anything, whether it is out loud in a speech or conversation or in writing, the following factors operate to one degree or another.

Assumptions
Unstated beliefs, values or definitions of key
terms which the author accepts as true and which
s/he expects the audience to accept, also.

|
\/

Warrant
The area of shared knowledge that
authorizes the move from evidence to thesis.

|
\/

Evidence (Data) ---->
The body of
support that leads
to the conclusion.

-> Modality (Qualifiers) ->
The degree of certainty with which a thesis is stated (the use of qualifiers such as some, most, many).

-----> Thesis (Claim)
The main idea that an author tries to promote.

|
\/

Rebuttal
Circumstances that act to cancel the thesis.

How Logical Fallacies Develop

Most errors in logic can be identified by associating a writer's reason with an element of the framework. Most logical fallacies consist of taking an element or type of argument to an extreme, exaggerating or misrepresenting information, or using it inappropriately, and/ or creating a false or misleading impression.

Misusing an element leads to errors in reasoning. The chart below shows the element and the logical fallacy which develops from misusing each.

Training Wheels That Can Help Detect Logical Fallacies
Element	Ask these questions. If the answer is "Yes,"	Look for this fallacy.
Assumption(s)	Does the statement take as a given the point that it is supposed to prove? Does it just restate or repeat the thesis?	Begging the question Circular reasoning
.	Does the statement or question imply one or more presuppositions that may not be true?	Many questions Complex question
Thesis	Do the major parts of the statement directly oppose each other or mutually exclude one another?	Contradictory premises
.	Does the statement veer away from the discussion or focus attention on another issue?	Straw man Red herring Smokescreen Back to Framework
.	Does the statement divert attention from the subject and draw attention to a defect in the opposition?	Two wrongs make a right
.	Does the statement discuss one example and then expand it to apply to several other people or areas?	Extension
.	Does the statement avoid the responsibility for proving the point by placing it on someone else?	Shifting the burden of proof Argument from ignorance
.	Is the view of the opposition exaggerated or otherwise unfairly represented?	Distortion
Modality	Are absolute terms such as always, never, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody used or implied to include territory that is inappropriate?	Unqualified generalization Dicto simpliciter
.	Does the statement mask facts that make it less compelling once they are known?	Death by a thousand qualifications
Warrants -- The Three Major Types of Appeals Pathos -- The Appeal to Emotion	Is there an appeal to emotions that is unfair and irrelevant in the context of the situation? Does the appeal to emotions draw attention away from the issue? Does it mask another purpose?	Ad misericordiam, aka Faulty emotional appeal Appeal to fear Demagoguery Back to Framework
Ethos -- The Appeal to Authority	Are references to the person or his/her personal characteristics irrelevant to the topic of discussion?	Ad hominem Argument to the person
.	Is the person cast in a negative light before s/he can speak, undermining his or her credibility?	Poisoning the well
.	Is the spokesperson's expertise in an area unrelated to the topic?	Borrowed prestige
.	Is the reader being asked to agree or do something because everyone else does?	Ad populum Bandwagon Appeal to the masses
.	Is the reader asked to accept a belief or practice merely because a governing or regulatory body holds the power?	Appeal to authority
.	Is an epithet used to refer to the person?	Name-calling
.	Is the reader being asked to agree because the subject or practice in question has existed for a long time?	Appeal to tradition Back to Framework
Logos -- The Mind Appeals Illustration	Are the examples irrelevant?	Non sequitur
.	Are the examples not very typical? If statistics are used, are they from a numerically insignificant sample?	Hasty generalization
Classification	Are all the categories set up by different principles? Are they not comprehensive and distinctive enough?	Flawed classification
.	Does the writer attribute a group's characteristic to one member in that group?	Division Back to Framework
.	Is a generalization being applied universally when there are obvious and justified exceptions?	Accident
Comparison	Do the objects being compared come from different classes? Are the differences enough to invalidate the argument?	Comparing apples and oranges Flawed comparison
.	Does the analogy fail in significant points?	False analogy
.	Are the points of comparison selectively applied to exclude information that works against reaching the desired conclusion?	Filtering the evidence Unbalanced comparison
Definition	Can the key terms mean several different things?	Ambiguity
.	Does the key term have two or more different meanings within the text?	Equivocation
Cause and Effect	Are the effects unlikely to come from the alleged cause?	Non sequitur
.	Do the effects seem to come from a previous event that is really unrelated?	Post hoc Doubtful cause
.	Could there be other, more, significant, less noticeable causes?	Oversimplification
.	Does the thesis offer a statement about a situation that does not or cannot exist as evidence?	Hypothesis contrary to fact
.	Does the conclusion that the writer calls for constitute a response that is out of proportion to the cause?	Composition Back to Framework
.	Are only two options being given?	False dilemma Either/or fallacy Suppressed alternatives Tautology Black and white fallacy
.	Is the list of events given unlikely to happen?	Slippery slope
Process	Is the process irrelevant to the thesis? Are the steps and materials described accurately and in order?	Flawed process analysis
Narration	Is the story or anecdote irrelevant?	Non sequitur
Description	Are the names, places, dated, times, and events inaccurate? Are the sights, sounds, touches, feelings, tastes, and odors described inaccurately? Back to Top \| Framework	Factual error

English 1301
Study Questions for The Logic Unit

1. Circle the statement which is true about inductive reasoning.

It makes a prediction that is based on previous evidence and only highly likely to be true.
It always points to the truth.
Inductive premises are either categorical, statistical, or analogous.
If the premises are true, it is 100% certain that the conclusion is also true

2. _____ The mistake in logic which carries persuasive power, but is based on information which is taken to an extreme, exaggerated, misrepresented, or used inappropriately to create a false or misleading impression that convinces the audience.

Fill in the correct name of each logical fallacy defined below.

3. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer argues that a characteristic of each part is necessarily a characteristic of the whole.

Example: The best football team consists of the eleven NFL players who are best in their respective positions.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the writer hold a characteristic of each responsible for its being an attribute of the group? How likely is that characteristic to hold for the whole group?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- cause and effect, perhaps classification, also.

4. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer argues that because the whole has a certain characteristic, therefore each individual part necessarily possesses it, too.

Example: The average American family owns a television and two cars, so that means that your family does, too.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the writer describe a member of a group in terms of a characteristic of the whole? How likely is one person or item to display the trait that it takes a whole group to create?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- cause and effect, perhaps classification, also.

5. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer draws a conclusion based on too few examples or insufficient evidence.

Example: When I was driving in on Interstate 10 this morning, a young man tailgated me all the way in to downtown. When I was trying to exit, another youth cut me off. Finally, at the Woodlawn intersection, a guy in a sports car ran the red light. It's clear -- young men can't drive safely.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Are the examples given unusual? If statistics are used, are they from a numerically insignificant sample?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Illustration

6. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer argues that a generalization applies universally when there are obvious and justified exceptions.

Example: Love is every human being's right. Therefore, a middle school teacher should not be punished for having a child with one of her students.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Is a generalization being applied universally when there are obvious and justified exceptions?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Classification

7. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer either consciously or unintentionally omits information that works against reaching the desired conclusion.

Example: AT & T charges twenty-five cents a minute for a long distance call in the daytime. Sprint charges five cents a minute for evening calls. Clearly, the discount company is the better choice.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Are the points of comparison selectively applied to exclude information that works against reaching the desired conclusion?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Comparison

8. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer draws a conclusion from evidence that is not related to the topic.

Example: In describing her teenage neighbor, comedienne Gracie Allen said, "Julie's 5' 2" so she's very smart!"

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Are the effects unlikely to come from the alleged cause?

Are the examples irrelevant?

Is the story or anecdote irrelevant?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- most often cause and effect, but sometimes illustration and narration

9. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer offers as evidence the point s/he is trying to prove. S/he expresses the issue as if s/he has already proven it, not offering evidence, but acting as if stating the point proves it.

Example: Conservatives in this country are too rich to care about helping poor people. If they weren't so rich, they'd care enough to help.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the statement take as a given the point that it is supposed to prove? Does it just restate or repeat the thesis?

On which element is it based? The assumptions.

10. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer argues that taking a step will inevitably lead to a second and subsequent chain of consequences that may or may not occur.

Example: The college must cut football players some slack, give them special consideration in the grading system, or it will sink into athletic oblivion, losing local and conference games, missing the playoffs entirely, and endangering the whole athletic program.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Is the list of events given unlikely to happen?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Cause and effect

11. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer makes a prediction on the consequences of a situation that does not or cannot exist, and then offers it as evidence.

Example: If women ruled, the world would be a gentler, kinder place.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the thesis offer a statement about a situation that does not or cannot exist as evidence?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Cause and effect

12. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer infers that because one event follows another event, the first one must necessarily be the cause of the second one.

Example: Every time I wash my car, it rains.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Do the effects seem to come from a previous event that is really unrelated?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Cause and effect

13. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer transfers the responsibility for proving the point to someone else.

Example: Of course OJ did not kill his ex-wife and her friend. No one can prove that he did not.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the statement avoid the responsibility for proving the point by placing it on someone else?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind --

14. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer suggests that only two alternatives exist; although there may be other explanations of or solutions to the problem under discussion, the writer acts as if they do not exist.

Example: We must either elect for Al Gore or leave the country.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Are only two options being given?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Cause and effect

15. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer draws conclusions from comparing widely dissimilar items, situations, or events which bear enough differences to invalidate any conclusions.

Example: Like the mighty Greek democracy, the United States enjoys great power and success. Since other free societies lived no longer than 200 years, this great nation's days are numbered.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the analogy fail in significant points?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Comparison

16. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer diverts attention from the subject by pointing out that the other side has a defect, instead of dealing with the shortcoming on his/her part that was the original issue.

Example: Cheating is no longer considered wrong because everybody does it at one time or another.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the statement divert attention from the subject and draw attention to a defect in the opposition?

On which element is it based? Thesis

17. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer grossly misrepresents the view of the opposing side.

Example: Government officials who want a tax cut instead of keeping the money to pay off the deficit just want to bankrupt the country.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Is the view of the opposition exaggerated or otherwise unfairly represented?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind --

18. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer's assertion contains or implies one or more presuppositions that may not be true.

Example: Have you quit cheating on math tests yet?

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the statement or question imply one or more presuppositions that may not be true?

On which element is it based? The assumptions.

19. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer makes a personal attack on the speaker advocating for the other side rather than sticking with the issue(s).

Example: Rush Limbaugh does not like Monica Lewinsky because he is as fat as she is and he doesn't like to be reminded of it.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Are references to the person or his/her personal characteristics irrelevant to the topic of discussion?

On which type of appeal is it based? Authority

20. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer makes a personal attack on the speaker advocating for the other side, undermining his/her credibility before s/he has spoken.

Example: Those who oppose the conservative agenda are impassioned, unthinking liberals, so don't listen to them when it's their turn to speak.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Is the person cast in a negative light before s/he can speak, undermining his or her credibility?

On which type of appeal is it based? Authority

21. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer invokes the celebrity of a person who is not qualified as an expert to offer evidence.

Example: Jane Fonda went to Vietnam in the late 1960s to explain why the United States should get out of the war there.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Is the spokesperson's expertise in an area unrelated to the topic?

On which type of appeal is it based? Authority

22. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer invokes values or feelings that are irrelevant to the argument to draw attention away from the issue, or conceal another purpose.

Example: If the United States elects a Republican president, the elderly will lose their Social Security and Medicare benefits.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Is there an appeal to emotions that is unfair and irrelevant in the context of the situation? Does the appeal to emotions draw attention away from the issue? Does it mask another purpose?

On which type of appeal is it based? Emotional

23. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer urges the reader to accept a certain position or engage in a particular behavior because everyone else does.

Example: Vote for Al Gore because he's ahead in exit polls.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Is the reader being asked to agree or do something because everyone else does?

On which type of appeal is it based? Authority

24. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer offers no evidence, but instead, asks the other side to agree to a belief or practice because it has existed for a long time.

Example: Writers should continue to create manuscripts in longhand because classic writing has always been created that way.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Is the reader being asked to agree because the subject or practice in question has existed for a long time?

On which type of appeal is it based? Authority

25. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer depends on the findings of experts or officials merely because they occupy positions of power.

Example: The district uses Social Security numbers to identify employees, so our department should, too.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Is the reader asked to accept a belief or practice merely because a governing or regulatory body holds the power?

On which type of appeal is it based? Authority

Other Common Fallacies

26. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer makes a statement in terms that are explicitly or implicitly absolute, terms that permit no exceptions.

Example: Sunshine helps the body produce vitamin D. Everyone should get out in it frequently.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Are absolute terms such as always, never, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody used or implied to include territory that is inappropriate?

On which element is it based? Modality

27. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer's argument consists of statements that directly oppose or mutually exclude one another.

Example: If feminists really want to promote the well-being of women, they'll look out for men, too.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Do the major parts of the statement directly oppose each other or mutually exclude one another?

On which element is it based? Mind -- Thesis

28. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer draws conclusions from comparing items, situations, or events whose differences are significant enough that no responsible, valid conclusions can be drawn.

Example: A Lamborghini is a better vehicle than a Toyota.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Do the objects being compared come from different classes? Are the differences enough to invalidate the argument?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Comparison

29. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer draws attention to an issue that is similar to the one the opponent holds and diverts the focus from the original subject by attacking the look-a-like view or issue.

Example: The former President Clinton said people were accusing his administration of accepting more in gifts and campaign funds than the law allows. In frustration, he said, "Let them try to get them back. I'll be glad to give back the monogrammed towels from Air Force One and the W's off the computer keyboards if they want to come after them."

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the statement veer away from the discussion or focus attention on another issue?

On which element is it based? Thesis

30. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer employs words that have several different meanings to state the key terms.

Example: My opponent talks about having high family values and good morals. I challenge him to show that they are better than mine.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Can the key terms mean several different things?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Definition

31. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer's assertion masks facts that make it less compelling once they are known.

Example: The mother told her child she was her favorite daughter. This statement worked until the daughter grew old enough to point out that she was the only girl child.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the statement mask facts that make it less compelling once they are known?

On which element is it based? Mind -- Thesis

32. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer states a cause that ignores other, possibly more significant, less noticeable causes.

Example: The internal combustion engine is the major cause of all of the disruptive and unusual weather that occurred in the past year.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Could there be other, more, significant, less noticeable causes?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Cause and effect

33. _____ The error in reasoning in which a word is used to mean two or more different things in an argument, and the difference in the meanings is so great that it invalidates the argument.

Example: When citizens cast votes in Florida, little did they dream that it would take so long to know the outcome. When they were all counted, the majority of the votes that were punched went to George Bush.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the key term have two or more different meanings within the text?

On which type of appeal is it based? Mind -- Definition

34. _____ The error in reasoning in which the writer broadens one example to cover even more people or areas.

Example: I burned the roast and now you're mad at me. I'll bet you think I'm stupid and can't imagine why you married me. I'll bet you think my mother and father are stupid, too, and you probably hate my whole family.

Which question(s) can help detect it? -- Does the statement discuss one example and then expand it to apply to several other people or areas?

On which element is it based? Thesis

Works Consulted

"Bandwagon Technique." The Communication Handbook: A Dictionary.

Ed. Joseph DeVito. New York: HarperCollins, 1986.

Barnet, Sylvan and Hugo Bedau, eds. Critical Thinking, Reading and

Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. New York: Bedford, 1993.

Corbett, Edward P. J. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student, 2^nd ed.

New York: Oxford UP, 1971.

Downes, Stephen. "Stephen's Guide to the Logical Fallacies." Brandon,

Manitoba, Canada, 1995-1998.

http://www.assiniboinec.mb.ca/user/downes/fallacy Mirror site: