CHAPTER 6
SOUTH AMERICA
The physical environments of South America range
from the Atacama Desert where years pass without measurable precipitation,
to the dense Amazonian rain forest and from snow capped volcanoes
of the Andes Mountain Range to hot vast subtropical grasslands.
The regions climate exhibits strong altitudinal
zonation rather than the latitudinal zonation of North America.
In each of these various zones, distinct local climates, soils,
crops, domestic animals and modes of life prevail.
ppTopography is dominated
by the Andes Mountains running along the western edge of the continent.
Half of South America's population and half of its area are in Brazil.
Disparities within the region and within the countries of the region
are strong.
The lowest vertical zone from sea level to
2,500 feet, is known as the tierra caliente or the “hot” of the
coastal plains and low lying interior basins where tropical agriculture
(such as bananas) predominate. Above this lowest zone lie
the tropical highlands containing Middle and South America’s largest
population clusters, the tierra templada of temperate land reaching
up to 6,000 feet. Temperatures in this region are cooler;
prominent among the commercial crops is coffee while core (maize)
and wheat are the staple grains. Still higher, from about
6,000 feet to nearly 12,000 feet is the tierra fría, the
cold country of the Andes where crops such as potatoes and barley
are the mainstays. Only small parts of Middle America reach
into this zone, but in South America this environment is more extensive
in the Andes. Above the tree line, which marks the upper limit
of the tierra fría, lies the puna (or paramos); this extends
from 12,000 to 15,000 feet and is so cold and barren that it can
support only the grazing of sheep and other hardy livestock.
The highest zone of all is the tierra helada or “frozen land”, a
land of permanent snow and ice that reached to the peaks of the
highest mountains. As one moves poleward of the tropics beyond
15 degrees of latitude, the sequence of these environmental zones
extends downward with breaks occurring at progressively lower altitudes.
Of South America’s environments, none is
more unique than the Atacama Desert. From coastal Equador
to Middle Chile, the west cost of South America is very dry, and
from Southern Peru to Northern Chile which constitutes the Atacama
Desert, this region is the driest region in the world. Little
annual precipitation occurs in this desert with only cool ocean
currents and the region lying in the extremely dry rainshadow of
the Andes Mountain Range. These cool ocean waters provide
Peru with one of the richest fisheries in the world. Abundant
populations of anchovies and tuna are found in nearby waters which
provide Peru with valuable exports. This industry is also
supported by cold bottom upwelling waters. Every few years,
however, the water warms, the winds reverse and the ecosystem is
damaged by El Niño (receiving this name because of an annual
warming that occurs during Christmas). However, periodically
this phenomenon becomes stronger than normal commencing during the
spring, reaching its peak during the following winter and declining
during the next spring. What is now known is that El Niño
is part of a complex ocean-atmospheric system which is a part of
the world-wide climate.
As previously stated, the cold Peruvian (or
Humbolt) Current flows equatorward along the coast of Ecuador and
Peru. This flow encourages upwelling of deep, nutrient-filled
waters that serve as the primary food source for millions of fish,
particularly anchovies. In addition to sustaining the local
fish industry, these fish support a large population of birds whose
droppings (guano) are mined and exported as fertilizer. Near
the end of each year, a weak, warm countercurrent flows southward
along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru, replacing the cold Peruvian
current. Normally these warm countercurrents last for a few
weeks when they again give way to the cold ocean current.
However, every three to seven years, this counter-current is unusually
warm and strong. Today the term El Niño (or ENSO) is
used to describe these episodes of ocean warming that greatly exceed
the relatively weak event that originally bore the name. The
onset of El Niño is heralded by the appearance of a warm
pool of water in the central and eastern Pacific, and a falling
of barometric pressure in the same region. This seesaw pattern
of atmospheric pressure between the eastern and western Pacific
is called the Southern Oscillation. Each time an El Niño
occurs, the barometric pressure falls in the eastern Pacific while
it rises in the western Pacific near Indonesia and Australia.
The rise in air pressure results in generally fair weather (which
leads to drought) while the lower pressure regime in the eastern
Pacific leads to precipitation and storms. This swing between
high and low pressure between these regions is called the Southern
Oscillation and the entire phenomenon is called El Niño/Southern
Oscillation or ENSO.
Winds in the lower atmosphere are the link
between the pressure change associated with the Southern Oscillation
and the extensive ocean warming associated with El Niño.
During a typical year, the trade winds converge near the equator
and flow westward toward Indonesia. This steady westward flow
creates a warm surface current that moves from east to west along
the equator. The result is a piling up of a thick layer of
warm surface water that produces higher sea levels in the western
Pacific, with corresponding lower sea levels in the eastern Pacific.
When an El Niño commences, pressures
rise in Indonesia while they fall over the eastern Pacific.
This causes the pressure gradient along the equator to weaken
or to reverse. As a consequence the trade winds diminish and
may even change direction. This reversal creates a major change
in the equatorial current system with warm water flowing eastward.
This eastward shift of the warmest surface water marks the onset
of El Niño and sets up changes in atmospheric circulation
that affects areas outside the tropical Pacific.
The effects of El Niño are variable,
depending in part on temperatures and size of the warm pool.
However, some locales are affected consistently by El Niño.
In the northern United States and Canada warmer than normal winter
temperatures occur (El Niño usually peaks during the northern
hemispheric winter). Normally arid portions of Peru and Ecuador
experience flooding rains. Above normal rainfall and cooler
than normal temperatures occur along the Gulf Coast and Florida.
Drought conditions occur over Indonesia and Australia and fewer
than normal hurricanes are found in the Atlantic Basin. The
current El Niño is considered the strongest since 1982-1983
(which caused over $13 billion dollars in damage) and many of the
above impacts have indeed occurred. In fact the winter of
1997-1998 is the warmest (so far) on record for the entire United
States. The storms in California occur in some El Niño
years and during non-El Niño years as well.
South America's History at a Glance
Prior to Spanish and Portuguese conquests,
most of South America's population was centered in the Andes Mountains.
The Inca civilization thrived in the altiplanos (valleys or basins)
of the Andes Mountains and were known for their administrative expertise,
as well as their ability to colonize and build. Their empire
was vast, yet control was concentrated from a small, tightly woven,
elite sector. When the Spanish arrived (along the northwest
and west coasts), a takeover at the top administrative levels was
enough to take control of the empire. Meanwhile Portuguese
armies invaded the areas along the east coast of Brazil, taking
over the lands and the local population. The Treaty de Tordesillas
was a line (running north/south near 50o west longitude)
drawn by the Pope to divide the world between Spanish and Portuguese
rule (the Spanish ruled the west and the Portuguese the east).
Portuguese settlers built plantations along the east coast, which
is quite tropical (much like Middle America's Rimland). However,
with most of the local population of South America concentrated
in the west, there were few Amerindians to act as a labor force.
The Portuguese found their labor force in the same source region
as many other colonizers of the New World - in Africa.
South America's Culture Spheres
Latin America is somewhat of a misnomer for
South America, since it is comprised of many cultures and people
from all parts of the world (Africa, India, Japan, Europe, and Indonesia).
The continent is divided into five culture spheres (subregions bound
by cultural similarities). First is the Tropical-Plantation
Culture Sphere, much like the Middle American Rimland with several
separated areas along the eastern/northeastern coast, tropical climates,
plantations and plantation economy. Second is the European-Commercial
Culture Sphere, located primarily in Argentina and Uruguay, the
most European (Latin) of the spheres, the most economically successful
of the spheres, grain, livestock, mixed farming, and well-connected
transportation routes allow for a commercial economy. Third
is the Amerind-Subsistence Culture Sphere, an elongated zone along
the Andean spine, subsistence economy, haciendas, and poor living
conditions due to high winds, bitter cold, and poor soils.
Fourth is the Mestizo-Transitional Culture Sphere, it surrounds
the Amerind-Subsistence region, it is a mix of European and Amerindian
populations, it is less commercial than European-Commercial, but
less subsistent than Amerind-Subsistence. Finally the Undifferentiated
Region, the characteristics are difficult to classify, located in
the interior of the continent in rainforest and sparsely populated
areas, and is isolated.
Regions of South America
Venezuela has a rich and diverse resource
base consisting of four regions. The first is Andean Highlands,
which curve eastward from Colombia to parallel to the Caribbean
coastline. Within the mountains are numerous large basins
endowed with temperate climates and fertile soils. Today,
this region contains much of the Venezuelan national population
(23 million) including the national of Caracas. The second
region is enclosed by the northwesternmost reaches of the Andes
with one of the most disagreeable climates in the world, the Maracaibo
lowlands which include Lake Maracaibo. This hot and humid
climate is home to one of world’s leading oil producing regions
with most of the oil located under Lake Maracaibo. In
the southeast a second mountainous region, the Guiana Highlands
has
begun development of its iron ore and bauxite reserves. Between
the Andean (or Venezuelan) Highlands and the Guiana Highlands
lies
the great plain of the Orinoco River the Llanos. Tall, course
grass grows on the inundated lowlands during the rainy season
and
dies off during the dry winter months leaving an exposed rock-hard
soil.
Oil and oil production accounts for 87 percent
of the country’s exports, for 25 percent of the Gross National Product
(GNP) and more than 60 percent of the governments revenue.
After 1985, the country suffered the economic consequences of low
global oil prices. Because Venezuela had borrowed against
future oil revenues, it faces the same economic difficulties as
Mexico in paying off its foreign debt, which was made worse by the
1994 Latin American monetary devaluation and political crisis that
produces a severe recession and widespread social unrest.
Columbia’s economic development has been
restricted by physical and cultural isolation. Western Columbia,
which contains the majority of the population, is divided by three
parallel north-south ranges of the Andes Mountains which restrict
east-west movement. One consequence of the nation’s fractured
terrain has been the strengthening of isolated, regional economies
and cultures at the expense of national unity. That condition
is most troublesome in the east, where vast expanses of the Orinoco
River Llanos and the rain forests of the Amazon Basin extend to
the distant frontier. Much of these two regions have remained
free of effective national control and today harbors not only subsistence
agriculture, but also illegal
drug production and processing (read box on page 259 de Blij
and Muller). This is probably the greatest threat to Colombian
society as these drug cartels have hired guerrilla bands as private
armies and effectively control parts of the hinterlands. Their
strength and wealth intimidate local and national officials and
any attempts at opposing them results in political kidnapping and
assassinations.
With extensive templada areas along the Andean
slopes, Colombia in the 1990’s was the world’s second largest exporter
of coffee. It is declining in importance as oil and coal become
the country’s leading economic exports. Petroleum deposits
are located adjacent to Lake Maracaibo and even larger deposits
in the Llano region of southeastern Colombia. Coal deposits
have also been found in great quantity here much of it exported
to Europe. Colombia’s expanding energy reserves, however,
are threatened by guerrilla organizations of the drug cartels which
force the military to guard production facilities and pipelines.
Colombia’s population of 39 million consists
of more than a dozen separate cluster with the capital city of
Bogotá
benefiting from its position along this artery.
Ecuador, smallest of the three Andean West
Republics appears to be just a corner of Peru. However, the
country possesses three environmental regions, a coastal belt, and
Andean zone and an eastern (or oriente) region. Ecuador’s
coastal zone consists of a belt of hills interrupted by lowland
hills drained by the Guayas River and its tributaries. The
largest city Gauyaquil, forms the focus of this region. Ecuador’s
west coast is not a desert coast as are areas further south;
it consists of fertile tropical plains with moderate rainfall.
Ecuador is one of the regions leading banana exporters; small
farms owned by black and mulatto Ecuadorians in the north contribute.
Cacao is another important lowland crop and coffee is grown on coastal
hillsides and in the Andean templada zones. Cotton, rice and
oil palms are also cultivated and cattle is raised. Oil also
tops the export list with deposits found in the rainforest region
of the Orient.
Ecuador is not a poor country, its coastal
lowland having undergone substantial development recently.
However, the Andean interior is dominated by Amerindian poverty,
a result of the hacienda legacy, and the regions physical isolation.
Quito, the national capital lies in one of several highland basins.
Peru is also similar to Ecuador in physical
geography. Each has three major areal units; the coast,
the Andes and the tropical eastern foothills (oriente). Peru
has aggressively pursued a policy of national unity, attempting
to integrate the Amer-Indian societies into a common national culture.
The Peruvian coast is a desert coast which has been described elsewhere.
Much of the coastal waters support large fishing grounds including
tuna and anchovies. Over- fishing and periodic invasions of
El Niño threaten this valuable ecosystem. The coast
is endowed with significant mineral deposits. In the north,
petroleum has been pumped since the late nineteenth century while
the south features copper and iron ore deposits. The economic
center of Peru is Lima and its outport of Callao which are becoming
rapidly industrialized.
The Andean region occupies about one-third
of this country of 25 million and contains the majority of the Amerindians.
Like Ecuador, this regions people and political influence remain
slight. The eastern (oriente) region is also isolated. The
Amazon drained rainforest is a site for oil exploration. The
economic orientation of this region is east towards Brazil.
Peru is emerging from nearly two decades
of guerrilla insurgency associated with the Sendero Luminoso (Shining
Path) communist insurgency. During the 1990’s this mountain
insurgency threatened the capital city of Lima. However, the
government has responded to this threat and ever since 1994, the
movement and violence have been declining. The countries economic
fortunes have improved and tourism has resumed.
As a result of a War with Chile (1879-1884),
Bolivia lost territory that is now part of northern Chile and became
the only Andean nation without a coastline. It also lost territory
to Brazil and Paraguay in the early 1900’s. Bolivia has historically
been one of South Americas poorest and politically unstable countries.
Bolivia consists of a series of high mountain basins between two
branches of the Andes. Centered on Lake Titicaca-which at
an elevation of 12,507 feet above sea level, is the world’s largest
fresh water lake-the altiplano or high plain is a cold and arid
region dominated by grasslands. Much of Bolivia’s wealth has
come from minerals not agriculture. The mining towns of Potosí
and Oruro have produced over half of the world’s silver. Immense
deposits of zinc, copper and other alloys have been discovered nearby.
Bolivia’s tin deposits have historically been the country’s leading
export now replaced by zinc and oil and natural gas.
Chile has achieved cultural unity in spite
of its unique long narrow shape. Extending 2,630 miles, but
never more than 250 miles in width, Chiles environments cover the
same latitudinal variation as coastal Baja California to Southeastern
Alaska. The core region is between 30 and 42 degrees South
latitude where the climate is Mediterranean (Csa and Csb) with hot
dry summers and cool wet winters. To the north is the bone-dry Atacama
Desert where decades can pass without measurable precipitation.
The Atacama is sparsely populated but possesses nitrates, copper
and iron ore, which constitute most of the nations mineral exports.
The south has a marine west coast environment similar to that of
the Pacific Northwest and coastal British Columbia. This region
is a cold, wind-swept mountainous region endowed with abundant forest
and water power potential. In the stormy far south, coal,
petroleum and natural gas are present with sheep raised for wool.
Fishing dominates all coastal waters of Chile.
Chile is in the midst of an economic boom
that is transforming its geography. During the 1990’s it has
been the fastest growing economy of South America. Following
the ouster of a repressive military government in 1989, Chile embarked
on program of reform that brought stable growth reduced the poverty
rate over 25 percent and attracted massive foreign investment especially
Japanese. Chile has become an export economy with copper,
gold, agricultural harvests (which coincide with the winter slowdown
in the Northern Hemisphere). Manufacturing ranges from chemicals
to computer software. Chile believes that regional economic
integration offers the best opportunities for continued progress
and is first in line to join an expanded NAFTA
(although this expansion was voted down by the U.S. Congress in
1997.)
Argentina has the second largest territory
in South America and one of the richest agricultural bases in all
the world. It is poor in comparison to the economically advanced
nations of Europe and Anglo-America due to primarily to misguided
political and economic policies. It’s population of 36 million
is the largest in the “south cone” of South America. It exhibits
a great deal of physiographic and environmental diversity within
its borders and the vast majority of the population is concentrated
in the region known as the Pampa.
The Argentine Pampa economically developed
in response to the food needs of Europeans Advances in industrialization
and agricultural advances helped make large-scale commercial meat
and grain production in the Pampa profitable. Argentine
cowboys or guachos roamed the pampas in search of hides which
they obtained
from European cattle released on the plains. By the end of
the colonial period, the wild herds were mostly exhausted and
estancias
or large cattle ranches began to be established around Buenos Aires.
Argentina’s population is literate (94 percent)
and urban (86 percent). In addition, some 98 percent of
the population are European and only 2 percent Mestizo. Buenos
Aires and the pampas are Argentinas core area. With over
12 million people Buenos Aires is the third largest city in
South America
behind São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. A well-integrated
road and railway system radiates outward from the city and goods
funnel through the city’s port to the world market. From
the Pampas come beef, maize and wheat which are largely exported
to
the developed world. Imports are manufactured goods from
the United States and Europe.
To the north of the Pampas is a low, humid
area between the Paraná and Uraguay Rivers. This region
is noted for maize, flax, tea and the raising of sheep and cattle.
Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil have worked together for
the creation of hydro-electric power plants to supply the regions
electricity needs. Southern Argentina is Patagonia a cold,
dry plateau for sheep ranching. Irrigation has allowed cattle
ranches, vineyards, alfalfa fields and fruit orchards to thrive
in this sparsely populated region. Argentina’s economy is
beginning to reach its economic potential now that military dictatorships
of Juan and Eva Perón and others have been replaced by more
economically reformed democratic governments. Other disasters such
as the Falklands War of 1982 with Great Britain and foreign indebtedness
will have to be overcome if Argentina is to progress.
Despite its small size (smallest in South
America), it enjoys one of the highest standards of living on the
continent. Much of its prosperity can be traced to the unity
of Uruguayan society, which has been supported by the country’s
uniformly rich agricultural base. A higher proportion of land
(90 percent) is used for agriculture in Uruguay than any other South
American nation. These farmlands produce rice, sugarcane,
wheat, maize and fruits. Wool, beef and mutton are the primary
grazing activities. Industry is concentrated in the capital
of Montevideo.
Paraguay is a poor landlocked country in
the heart of South America. The western two-thirds of the
country, known as the Gran Chaco is a sparsely settled semiarid
region of intermittent streams lined with quebracho trees as a source
of tanning. The Chaco has one of the harshest environments
on the continent. During the rainy season, from November to
April, the rivers overflow and flood vast reaches of land.
In May the waterlogged soils dry out and by the end of the long
dry season are often caked with thick layers of minerals.
Summer temperatures frequently reach 110ºF, (43ºC) the
highest in South America.
Eastern Paraguay is an extension of the fertile
volcanic Paraná Plateau of southern Brazil. Situated
between the Paraguay and Paraná Rivers is the capital city
of Ascunción. The majority of people are Mestizos.
The country has largely been governed by military dictators throughout
its history and even when democratic leadership is elected, the
military still exerts formidable power.
Much of what little economic development
exists has come from external sources. Paraguay is a partner
with Brazil in the development of Itaipu, the largest hydroelectric
dam in the world, which is situated on the Rio Paraná.
Paraguay is also participating with Argentina on another hydroelectric
dam at Yacretá. The bulk of the power generated from
both projects will be routed to Brazil and Argentina.
The limited industry that does exist within
Paraguay focuses on the processing of local agricultural products
and textiles. Land is abundant, but only 2 percent of farmers
own their own land; the vast majority work on large estates.
Brazil is the largest and most populated of South America
countries. It is the fifth largest and sixth populated country
in the world. It’s large physical area borders every South
American country except Ecuador. It is a resource rich and
a world agricultural leader. In spite of this, Brazil is not
yet a fully developed country because of domestic corruption, a
huge foreign debt and an explosive economy based on deriving maximum
wealth in a short period of time without regard for building a stable,
long-term economic base.
Regions of Brazil
Sáo Paulo
The state of Sáo Paulo is Brazil’s
most modern and productive region. Per capita income exceeds
the modern average and almost one third of the nation’s GDP is produced
here. Sáo Paulo state accounts for almost two-thirds
of the country’s industrial output, producing practically all of
Brazil’s motor vehicles and leading the nation in the manufacture
of textiles, cement, shoes, paper products, processed coffee, pharmaceuticals
and electronic products. It is also an agribusiness center
for coffee, soy bean, beef, sugarcane, cotton, peanuts, track crops
and rice as Sáo Paulo lies within one of the most productive
farmlands in the world. Sáo Paulo is also a leading
financial center and generates 55 percent of the nations manufacturing
with over 30,000 factories.
Sáo Paulo's economic growth (over
18 million people) has come at a social cost. Much in migration
from rural areas, mostly semi-skilled to illiterate live in various
degrees of poverty in barrios or favelas that surround the city.
Commuting to work is difficult due to the large population and congested
roads. Sáo Paulo is one of the most heavily polluted
cities in the world and water pollution is severe.
The South
Southern Brazil is the most Europeanized
region of Brazil with a significant population of Italians and Germans.
Japanese are also moving here. Agriculture is the economic
livelihood of this region. Cattle ranching, mechanized wheat
and soy bean farming, and coffee plantations (not as prevalent as
further north because of winter freezes) prevail. Hog raising
and vineyards reflect the European influence. Recently, this
are has expressed a desire for independence reflecting devolutionary
forces that are weakening nation states around the globe.
The Southeast
Rio de Janeiro is the focal point of development
in this region. Situation around one of the most recognized
harbors in the world, it grew rapidly during the early part of the
twentieth century due to its proximity to the inland gold and diamond
fields of Minas Gerais. The south-east contains one of the
most mineralized areas of the world, the Minerla Triangle which
includes gold, diamonds, molybdenum, manganese, tungsten, chromium,
nickel and iron ore, the latter the most significant. Today,
Brazil is the leading steel producer in South America and the ninth
largest steel maker in the world as a result of these deposits.
The Northeast
The Northeast was once the center of Brazilian
culture and its the most developed part. That status was based
on the plantation regime (sugarcane) which used African slaves and
on the regions location as the part of Brazil closest to Portugal.
This advantage was lost with the invention of steamships.
Today, although sugarcane is still grown, the region is no longer
prosperous and suffers from poverty and unpredictable droughts.
Thousands of people in the area have migrated to other parts of
Brazil adding the economic pressures in larger cities further south.
Since the 1960’s the government has launched
several development projects in this region such as hydroelectric
projects, irrigated agriculture and improvement of roads.
Despite the investments the region remains the poorest in Brazil.
Interior Brazil
This region of Brazil which consists of the
states of Goiás, Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul is the
subregion that Brazil’s planners and developers have sought to become
the nation’s productive heartland. In the 1950’s the national
capital was relocated from Rio de Janeiro to Brasília (an
example of a forward capital) in an attempt to show its commitment
to economically develop this hinterland. The vast cerrado
is a subtropical fertile savanna whose agricultural productivety
is equal to that of the Pampas and the U.S. Great Plains.
Rainfall is more reliable here than either of the other two and
one of its main advantages is it facilitates large scale mechanization
with little use of labor and less (although there are some) environmental
degradation which is prevalent in the Amazon Basin. The growth
of an efficient transportation network is necessary in order to
accompany the opening of this frontier.
The Amazonian North
This is the largest and most rapidly developing
subregion and the most remote from the rest of Brazil. This
is a region of boom and bust cycles most notably the rubber trees
which produced huge profits until the rubber trees which produced
huge profits until the boom ended in the early twentieth century.
The Brazilian government is overseeing two development projects,
the Grande Carajás Project in eastern Pará State for
the mining of large deposits of iron ore and the Palonoreset Plan
which is near the Bolivian border and is settlement for agricultural
purposes. Both of these schemes are examples of growth-pole
activities, where a set of industries, given a start, will expand
and generate widening economic growth in the surrounding hinterland.
These development projects are not without
cost. Environmental degradation due to clearcutting of forests
and logging have resulted in decreasing soil fertility (remember
in these tropical climates leaching from heavy precipitation removes
valuable nutrients) and has dislocated some of the native peoples
of the Amazon (such as the Yanomami) whose way of life is increasingly
being threatened by these development projects. Amazon development
also has wider implications, it accounts for over half of all tropical
deforestation, a subject discussed in the previous chapter.
Urbanization
South America is characterized by widespread
rural to urban migration. Latin American cities differ from North
American cities in their spatial organization. A central square
usually contains governmental buildings and a cathedral at the center
of the city. It also contains commercial activity supported
by retail and other business establishments. A commercial
spine extends from the central square along a major transportation
corridor. The Elite Residential Sector surrounds the commercial
spine, since residents are capable of taking advantage of the amenities
offered by the spine to include upper class, high quality housing.
The Zone of Maturity is in the inner city and contains the best
housing outside the elite sector. The residents have the capital
to maintain repairs on their houses. The Zone of In-Situ Accretion
is modest housing located outside of the Zone of Maturity.
Mixed housing ranging from well-kept, modest dwellings to those
in disrepair, population density is quite high. The Zone of
Peripheral Squatter Settlement, the poorest, outermost ring of the
Latin American city. Make-shift houses are made from whatever
scraps of material, lumber, or rock are found in the area.
This is the area that rural-urban migrants first encounter and stay
until they can find better jobs and housing within the city.
Questions for Review
Answer all of the following questions
1. Why is there a Portuguese east and a Spanish
west in South America?
2. Discuss the El Nino phenomena from its
onset to termination-use the TOGA website in this chapter to help
with this explaination. What is the Southern Oscillation?
How does it impact El Nino? What impacts of El Nino occur
in Peru? In North America? Why is the Atlantic Hurricane
season impacted by El Nino? What is La
Nina?
4. What are the development projects that
the Brazilian government is backing in the interior portions of
Brazil? Are they feasible?
5. What are the geographic reasons why the
cocaine trade is so successful in Columbia?
6. Discuss the differences between North American
Cities and South American Cities (look at the diagram in your text).
7. Discuss the elevational climatic classification
system that exists in Middle and South America.
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